SUMMA DÆMONICA BIBLIOGRAFIA

GANE: 2012

Constance Ellen Gane

Composite Beings in Neo-Babylonian Art

(Teză de doctorat)

University of California, Berkeley, Fall 2012, 295 pp. (pdf)

Table of Contents

List of Illustrations -  x, List of Tables – xvii, List of Abbreviations – xix, List of Chronological Periods – xxii, List of Kings (Selected) – xxiii, 1. Introduction – 1, 1.1 Purpose of the Research – 1, 1.2 Literature Review – 2, 1.2 Methodology of the Research – 7, 1.4 Neo-Babylonian Sources for the Research – 9, 1.5 Types of Composite Beings – 13, 1.6 Configuration of Chapters – 14, 2. Apkallu  -15, 2.1 Historical Background to Apkallu in General – 16, 2.2 Human-Figured Ūmu-Apkallu – 21, 2.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 21, 2.2.2 Physical Components of the Human-Figured Ūmu-Apkallu – 24, 2.2.3 Context of the Human-Figured Ūmu-Apkallu within Scenes – 25, 2.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 27, 2.2.5 External Context – 28, 2.2.6 Historical Background – 30, 2.2.7 Conclusion – 33, 2.3 Fish-Cloaked Apkallu – 34, 2.3.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 34, 2.3.2 Physical Components of the Fish-Cloaked Apkallu – 36, 2.3.3 Context of the Fish-Cloaked Apkallu within Scenes – 37, 2.3.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 38, v 2.3.5 External Context – 38, 2.3.6 Historical Background – 40, 2.3.7 Conclusion – 42, 2.4 Bird-of-Prey-Headed, Winged Apkallu – 43, 2.4.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 43, 2.4.2 Physical Components of the Bird-of-Prey-Headed, Winged Apkallu....43 2.4.3 Context of the Bird-of-Prey-Headed, Winged Apkallu within Scene.....44 2.4.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 45, 2.4.5 External Context – 45, 2.4.6 Historical Background – 45, 2.4.7 Conclusion – 47, 2.5 Conclusion – 47, 3. Genius – 48, 3.1 Winged Human Figure, the So-Called Genius – 50, 3.1.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 50, 3.1.2 Physical Components of the Winged Genius – 51, 3.1.3 Context of the Winged Genius within Scenes – 51, 3.1.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 62, 3.1.5 External Context – 62, 3.1.6 Historical Background -. 65, 3.1.7 Conclusion - .65, 4. Bovine – 67, 4.1 The Natural Bovine: Kusarikku (GUD4.ALIM) – 67, 4.2 Bull-Man: Kusarikku (GUD4.ALIM) – 72, 4.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 72, 4.2.2 Physical Components of the Bull-Man – 76, 4.2.3 Context of the Bull-Man within Scenes – 76, 4.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 78, 4.2.5 External Context – 79, 4.2.6 Historical Background – 81, 4.2.7 Conclusion – 83, 4.3 Human-Headed Bovine: Aladlammû ( d ALAD.d LAMMA.MEŠ) – 83, 4.3.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Example – 83, 4.3.2 Physical Components of the Human-Headed Bovine – 84, 4.3.3 Context of the Human-Headed Bovine within Scene - 84 4.3.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 84, 4.3.5 External Context – 85, 4.3.6 Historical Background – 85, 4.3.7 Conclusion – 87, 4.4 Winged Bull (Akkadian Term Unknown) – vi, 4.4.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 88, 4.4.2 Physical Components of the Winged Bull -.89, 4.4.3 Context of the Winged Bull within Scenes – 89, 4.4.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 90, 4.4.5 External Context – 90, 4.4.6 Historical Background – 90, 4.4.7 Conclusion – 90, 4.5 Conclusion – 91, 5. Lion – 92, 5.1 Natural Lion: Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica) – 92, 5.2 Winged or Wingless Human-Headed Lion (Sphinx) – 97, 5.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 97, 5.2.2 Physical Components of the Human-Headed Lion – 103, 5.2.3 Context of the Human-Headed Lion within Scenes – 103, 5.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Text – 105, 5.2.5 External Context – 105, 5.2.6 Historical Background – 106, 5.2.7 Conclusion – 107, 5.4 Lion-Demon: U4-GAL/d Ugallu – 108, 5.4.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 108, 5.4.2 Physical Components of the Lion-Demon – 109, 5.4.3 Context of the Lion-Demon within Scenes – 109, 5.4.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Text – 109, 5.4.5 External Context – 109, 5.4.6 Historical Background – 110, 5.4.7 Conclusion - .111, 5.5 Lion-Demoness: —/ Lamashtu – 111, 5.5.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 111, 5.5.2 Physical Components of Lamashtu – 113, 5.5.3 Context of Lamashtu within Scenes – 114, 5.5.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 115, 5.5.5 External Context – 116, 5.5.6 Historical Background – 116, 5.5.7 Conclusion – 118, 5.6 Lion-Dragon – 119, 5.6.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 119, 5.6.2 Physical Components of the Lion-Dragon – 120, 5.6.3 Context of the Lion-Dragon within Scenes – 120, 5.6.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Text – 121, 5.6.5 External Contexts – 121, 5.6.6 Historical Background – 121, 5.6.7 Conclusion – 122, 5.7 Conclusion – 122, 6. Canine – 124, 6.1 Natural Dog – 124, 6.2 Canine-Headed Demon: Pazuzu – 127, 6.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 127, 6.2.2 Physical Components of Pazuzu – 132, 6.2.3 Context of Pazuzu within Scene – 132, 6.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 133, 6.2.5 External Context – 134, 6.2.6 Historical Background – 135, 6.2.7 Conclusion – 137, 6.3 Dog-Humanoid (“Mad Canine/Lion”): (d)Ur(i)dimmu (UR.IDIM) – 138, 6.3.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Example – 138, 6.3.2 Physical Components of the Dog-Humanoid – 139, 6.3.3 Context of the Dog-Humanoid within Scene – 139, 6.3.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Text – 140, 6.3.5 External Context – 141, 6.3.6 Historical Background – 141, 6.3.7 Conclusion – 142, 6.4. Conclusion – 142, 7. Winged Quadrupeds – 144, 7.1 Natural Ibex – 144, 7.2 Winged Ibex – 146, 7.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 146, 7.2.2 Physical Components of the Winged Ibex – 146, 7.2.3 Context of the Winged Ibex within Scenes – 148, 7.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Text – 149, 7.2.5 Exernal Context – 149, 7.2.6 Historical Background – 149, 7.2.7 Conclusion – 150, 7.3 Unidentified Winged Human-Headed Quadruped -150,  7.3.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 150, 7.3.2 Physical Components of the Unidentified Winged Human-Headed Quadruped – 150, 7.3.3 Context of the Unidentified Winged Human-Headed Quadruped within Scene – 150, 7.3.4. Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 151, 7.3.5 External Context – 151, 7.3.6 Historical Background 151, 7.3.7 Conclusion – 151, 7.4 Conclusion – 152, 8. Fish and Composite Beings of the Sea – 153, viii 8.1 Natural Fish – 153, 8.2 Merman: Kulullû (KU6.LÚ.U18.LU) – 155, 8.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 155, 8.2.2 Physical Components of the Merman (Kulullû) – 155, 8.2.3 Context of the Merman (Kulullû) within Scenes – 156, 8.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babyonian Texts – 156, 8.2.5 External Context – 157, 8.2.6 Historical Background – 157, 8.2.7 Conclusion – 160, 8.3 Goat-Fish: Suḫurmašû (SUḪUR-MAŠ) – 160, 8.3.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Example – 160, 8.3.2 Physical Components of the Goat-Fish – 161, 8.3.3 Context of the Goat-Fish within Scene – 161, 8.3.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Text – 161, 8.3.5 External Context – 161, 8.3.6 Historical Background – 161, 8.3.7 Conclusion – 163, 8.4 Fish Quadruped – 163, 8.5 Conclusion – 164, 9. Birds and Winged Composite Beings – 165, 9.1 Natural Bird – 165, 9.2 Bird-Griffin: Kurību – 167, 9.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 167, 9.2.2 Physical Components of the Bird-Griffin – 168, 9.2.3 Context of the Bird-Griffin within Scenes – 170, 9.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 175, 9.2.5 External Contexts – 175, 9.2.6 Historical Background – 176, 9.2.7 Conclusion – 178, 9.3 Lion-Headed Eagle: Anzû (ANZUD) – 179, 9.3.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Example – 179, 9.3.2 Physical Components of the Lion-Headed Eagle (Anzû) – 180, 9.3.3 Context of the Lion-Headed Eagle (Anzû) within Scene – 180, 9.3.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 180, 9.3.5 External Context – 182, 9.3.6 Historical Background – 182, 9.3.7 Conclusion – 184, 9.4 Bird Figure – 184, 9.5 Conclusion – 185, 10. Scorpion - 186, 10.1 Natural Scorpion – 186, 10.2 Scorpion-Man: Girtablullû (GÍR.TAB.LÚ.Ux[GIŠGAL].LU) – 187, 10.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 187, 10.2.2 Physical Components of the Scorpion-Man – 189, 10.2.3 Context of the Scorpion-Man within Scenes – 190, 10.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 191, 10.2.5 External Context – 192, 10.2.6 Historical Background – 192, 10.3 Conclusion – 196, 11. Snake – 197. 11.1 Natural Snake – 197, 11.2 Snake-Monster: Bašmu (UŠUM or MUŠ-ŠÀ-TUR) – 200, 11.2.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 200, 11.2.2 Physical Components of the Snake-Monster – 200, 11.2.3 Context of the Snake-Monster within Scene – 201, 11.2.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 201, 11.2.5 External Context – 202, 11.2.6 Historical Background – 202, 11.2.7 Conclusion – 204, 11.3 Snake-Dragon: Mušḫuššu (MUŠ.ḪUŠ) – 204, 11.3.1 Overall Description of Neo-Babylonian Examples – 204, 11.3.2 Physical Components of the Snake-Dragon – 205, 11.3.3 Context of the Snake-Dragon within Scenes – 206, 11.3.4 Interpretation by Neo-Babylonian Texts – 214, 11.3.5 External Context – 217, 11.3.6 Historical Background – 221, 11.3.7 Conclusion – 224, 11.4 Conclusion – 224, 12. Conclusion – 226, 12.1 Results of Investigation – 226, 12.1.1 Interconnectedness within the Cosmic Community – 227, 12.1.2 Hierarchical Functions – 229, 12.1.3 Choice of Composite Being to Portray in Iconography – 231, Bibliography – 234, Patterns of Physical Morphology and Posture of Neo-Babylonian Composite Beings – 257.

Acknowledgments

This work would not have been possible without the generous aid and encouragement of many people. I especially want to thank the members of my dissertation committee: David Stronach (chair), Anne D. Kilmer, Marian Feldman, and Diliana Angelova. They have invested many hours in reading my manuscript and giving constructive criticism. As exceptional mentors, they have served as role models for my professional life. Professor Stronach and Kilmer have seen me through the long journey from the beginning of my masters program to the completion of my doctoral work. In the process of guiding my dissertation, Professor Stronach has boosted my morale with anecdotes and humor reminiscent of his inimitable classroom lectures. Professor Kilmer has instilled in me a love of Akkadian, and she has provided important assistance with Akkadian and Sumerian texts that inform our understanding of composite creatures. Professor Feldman has contributed wise advice and profound insights regarding the trajectory of this research at every stage. I am deeply grateful to Professor Angelova for her willingness to critique my manuscript in its final stage. Any imperfections that remain are my own responsibility. With exemplary pedagogy, Professor Wayne Horowitz (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) first introduced me to the rich world of Sumero-Babylonian religion and mythology. Others who have helped to shape my research interests include Professors Guitty Azarpay and Edith Porada and Drs. Dominique Collon and Christopher Walker. Senior members of the Iraqi Department of Antiquities, including Dr. Muzahim Mahmud Hussein and the late Dr. Donny George of the Iraq Museum and Dr. Manhal Jabr of the Mosul Museum kindly allowed me to examine relevant artifacts. Several individuals at the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin provided valuable access, advice, and ideas when I gathered data in the Mesopotamian collection there (funded by a research grant from Andrews University). These include Drs. Evelyn Klengel-Brandt, Eva Strommenger, and Joachim Marzahn. At the British Museum, I benefited from the guidance and assistance of Mr. Terence Mitchell (Former Keeper of Western Asiatic Antiquities), Dr. Jonathan Tubb (Keeper of the Department of the Middle East), and Mr. Nigel Tallis (Assistant Keeper of later Mesopotamia). I am deeply grateful to artist Zech Ray who accomplished the daunting task of drawing all the illustrations for this dissertation with great competence. Evelyn Tollerton, with a remarkable eye for detail, proved to be a tower of strength by managing the necessary copyediting and formatting. Amanda McGuire-Moushon has also provided significant assistance with final editing. iii My doctoral program was funded by a generous sponsorship from Andrews University (Berrien Springs, Michigan), where I teach. For this I am grateful to President Niels-Erik Andreasen and Deans Werner Vyhmeister, John McVay, and Denis Fortin. Hearty thanks go to my Old Testament Department colleagues at Andrews University—Drs. Richard Davidson, Randall Younker, Jiří Moskala, and Paul Ray—for their unwavering support. My parents, Dr. Richard and Virginia Clark, deserve a special tribute for their endless supply of kindness and patience. My parents-in-law, Dr. Erwin and Winsome Gane, have also consistently encouraged me during this long process. This dissertation is dedicated to my precious husband, Roy Gane, and our daughter, Sarah Gane Burton. Without the unfailing support of Roy, I never would have made it to the end of this task. His belief in me never faltered. Sarah surrendered many a home party and family outing to my dissertation, and she did it without complaint. She has called my dissertation her “little sister,” with whom she was obliged to share my time. Nevertheless, she never made me feel that I should abandon the project. Finally, I have been sustained by divine promises, such as Jeremiah 33:3—“Call to Me, and I will answer you, and show you great and mighty things, which you do not know.”